![]() Interviews with pastoralists indicated that wolves annually killed 1–4% of Ikh Nart's livestock, and pastoralists killed wolves in retribution. Livestock composed at least 96% of ungulate prey in the single wolf pack for which we collected species-specific prey data. Isotope analyses indicated that livestock accounted for >50% of the diet of the majority of gray wolves (Canis lupus) and up to 90% of diet in 25% of sampled wolves (n = 8). ![]() For argali, pastoral activities decreased food availability, increased mortality from dog predation, and potentially increased disease risk. ![]() The density of argali (Ovis ammon), the world's largest wild sheep, at Ikh Nart was among the highest in Mongolia, yet livestock were >90% of ungulate biomass and dogs >90% of large-carnivore biomass. To elucidate relationships underpinning human–wildlife conflict, we synthesized 15 years of ecological and ethnographic data from Ikh Nart Nature Reserve in Mongolia's Gobi steppe. ![]() Conflict is inextricably linked to the ecological processes shaping relationships between pastoralists and native herbivores and carnivores. In arid regions of the developing world, pastoralists and livestock commonly inhabit protected areas, resulting in human–wildlife conflict. ![]()
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